1899-1955 – South Sudan is part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, under joint British-Egyptian rule.
1956 – Sudan gains independence.
First civil war
1962 – Civil war led by the southern separatist Anya Nya movement begins with the north.
1969 – Group of socialist and communist Sudanese military officers led by Col Jaafar Muhammad Numeiri seizes power; Col Numeiri outlines the policy of autonomy for the south.
1972 – The government concedes a measure of autonomy for southern Sudan in a peace agreement signed in Addis Ababa.
1978 – Oil discovered in Unity State in southern Sudan.
Second civil war
1983 – Fighting breaks out again between north and south Sudan, under the leadership of John Garang’s Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), after Sudanese President Jaafar Numeiri abolishes South Sudan’s autonomy.
1988 – Democratic Unionist Party – part of Sudan’s ruling coalition government – drafts cease-fire agreement with the SPLM, but it is not implemented.
1989 – Military seizes power in Sudan.
2001 – Sudanese Islamist leader Hassan Al-Turabi’s party, the Popular National Congress, signs memorandum of understanding with the southern rebel SPLM’s armed wing, the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). Mr. Al-Turabi is arrested the next day.
2002 – Talks in Kenya lead to a breakthrough agreement between southern rebels and the Sudanese government on ending the civil war. The Machakos Protocol provides for the south to seek self-determination after six years.
Fragile peace
2006 November – Hundreds die in fighting centered on the southern town of Malakal – the heaviest between northern Sudanese forces and former rebels since the 2005 peace deal.
2008 March – Tensions rise over clashes between an Arab militia and SPLM in the disputed oil-rich Abyei area on the north-south divide – a key sticking point in the 2005 peace accord.
2009 July – North and south Sudan say they accept the ruling by an arbitration court in The Hague shrinking disputed Abyei region and placing the major Heglig oil field in the north.
Independence referendum
2009 December – Leaders of North and South reach a deal on terms of a referendum on independence due in South by 2011.
2011 January – The people of South Sudan vote in favor of full independence from Sudan.
2011 February – Clashes between the security forces and rebels in southern Sudan’s Jonglei state leave more than 100 dead.
2011 May – North occupies the disputed border region of Abyei.
2011 June – Governments of north and south sign accord to demilitarize the disputed Abyei region and let in an Ethiopian peacekeeping force.
New state born
2011 9 July – Independence day.
2011 August – UN says at least 600 people are killed in ethnic clashes in Jonglei state.
2012 January – South Sudan declares a disaster in Jonglei State after some 100,000 flee clashes between rival ethnic groups.
2012 April – After weeks of border fighting, South Sudan troops temporarily occupy the oil field and border town of Heglig before being repulsed. Sudanese warplanes raid the Bentiu area in South Sudan.
2012 August – Some 200,000 refugees flee into South Sudan to escape fighting between the Sudanese army and rebels in Sudan’s southern border states.
2012 September – The presidents of Sudan and South Sudan agree to trade, oil and security deals after days of talks in Ethiopia.
2013 March – Sudan and South Sudan agree to resume pumping oil after a bitter dispute over fees that saw production shut down more than a year earlier. They also agreed to withdraw troops from their border area to create a demilitarized zone.
2013 June – President Kiir dismisses Finance Minister Kosti Manibe and Cabinet Affairs Minister Deng Alor over a multi-million dollar financial scandal and lifts their immunity from prosecution.
2013 July – President Kiir dismisses the entire cabinet and Vice-President Riek Machar in a power struggle within the governing Sudan People’s Liberation Movement.
Civil war
2013 December – Civil war erupts as President Salva Kiir accuses his former vice-president, Riek Machar, of plotting to overthrow him.
Rebel factions seize control of several regional towns, thousands are killed and many more flee. Uganda troops intervene on the government’s side.
2014 January – A ceasefire is signed but broken several times over subsequent weeks, and further talks in February fail to end the violence that displaces more than a million people by April.
2014 April – UN says pro-Machar forces sack the oil town of Bentiu, killing hundreds of civilians.
2014 August – Peace talks begin in the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa and drag on for months as fighting continues.
2016 April – Riek Machar finally returns to Juba and is sworn in as first vice-president in a new unity government – but is sacked in July after further conflict and goes back into exile.
2016 November – UN sacks Kenyan commander of its peacekeeping mission over the failure to protect civilians in Juba during July violence. Kenya withdraws its troops from the peacekeeping mission.
Japanese peacekeepers arrive in South Sudan, the first time in nearly 70 years that Japan has deployed its soldiers overseas with a broad mandate to use force if necessary.
2016 December – A UN commission on human rights says a process of ethnic cleansing is underway in several parts of the country, a claim that President Salva Kiir denies.
2017 February – A famine is declared in parts of South Sudan in what the UN describes as a man-made catastrophe caused by civil war and economic collapse.
2017 May – President Kiir declares a unilateral ceasefire, launches national dialogue.
2017 August – The number of refugees fleeing violence in South Sudan to Uganda passes the one million mark, according to the UN.
2018 August – President Kiir signs a power-sharing agreement with Riek Machar and other opposition groups in a bid to end the civil war. The deal will see Machar return to the government as one of five vice-presidents.
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
South Sudanese await the arrival of South Sudan’s president, Salva Kiir, in Juba after peace talks in Ethiopia on June 22. (Akuot Chol/AFP/Getty Images)
UNMISS’ objective is to consolidate peace and security, and help establish conditions for development in the Republic of South Sudan, with a view to strengthening the capacity of the Government of South Sudan to govern effectively and democratically and establish good relations with its neighbors.
The Security Council demanded that the Government of South Sudan immediately cease obstruction of UNMISS in the performance of its mandate, cease obstruction of international and national humanitarian actors in their delivery of aid to civilians, and facilitate free movement for the Ceasefire and Transitional Security Arrangements Monitoring and Evaluation Commission.
Also by the text, the Council authorized the Mission “to use all necessary means necessary” to protect civilians, to create conditions suitable to the delivery of humanitarian assistance, and to support the implementation of the Revitalized Agreement. It also expressed its intention to consider “all appropriate measures” against those who take actions that undermine peace, security, and stability in South Sudan.
As a large, multidimensional peacekeeping operation – with 17,000 troops, 2,000 police and 2,000 civilians – UNMISS has been provided with significant resources and an extraordinarily ambitious mandate. Throughout its existence, UNMISS has been part of a much broader regional and international constellation of actors working to stabilize the country and encourage conflict parties to enter into a meaningful peace process. In many cases, UNMISS has played a limited supportive, coordinating, or otherwise indirect role in the overall trajectory of the country; in others, it is a central actor in the eyes of the people of South Sudan.
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
According to the US-based NGO Freedom House, guarantees of media freedom in the Transitional Constitution are not respected in practice. The government has threatened and detained journalists over reports it does not like and the security services have seized print runs of newspapers. Defamation is criminalized.
Radio is the most popular medium. Private stations, some with foreign funding, operate alongside the state-run South Sudan Broadcasting Corporation (SSBC). The Catholic Church and Internews, a US-based media development organization, are key players in non-state radio. BBC World Service broadcasts to Juba on 90 FM (Arabic) and 88.2 FM (English).
Though expensive for many locals, newspapers rank second to radio in popularity. Most publish in English and are printed in Uganda or Kenya.
State TV has little competition. The development of TV is hindered by poverty and limited electricity and telecoms infrastructure.
There were 2.2 million Internet users by December 2018, around 17% of the population (InternetWorldStats.com). Access to online media that report opposition views has been blocked.
There were 230,000 active social media users by January 2019 (We Are Social). Facebook is the most-used platform.
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
Natural gas – proved reserves: 63.71 billion cu m (1 January 2016 est.)
Airports: 89 (2020)
Airports – with paved runways:
total: 4 (2020)
over 3,047 m: 1
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
Airports – with unpaved runways:
total: 84 (2020)
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 12
914 to 1,523 m: 38
under 914 m: 33
Heliports: 3 (2020)
Railways:
total: 248 km (2018)
note: a narrow gauge, single-track railroad between Babonosa (Sudan) and Wau, the only existing rail system, was repaired in 2010 with $250 million in UN funds, but is not currently operational
Roadways:
total: 90,200 km (2019)
paved: 300 km (2019)
unpaved: 89,900 km (2019)
note: most of the road network is unpaved and much of it is in disrepair
Waterways: NA
According to the African Development Bank Group, decades of civil war basically inhibited the provision of basic infrastructure and this undermined much of its production capacity. As a result, most goods – such as food, construction materials, and basic inputs – are imported. And exports other than oil are minimal. Given that about 80% of the population lives in rural areas, the lack of basic infrastructure for many years now has been a serious impediment to the development of the large agricultural potential of the country.
Large areas with very low population densities and decades of internal conflict have made it difficult to provide adequate infrastructure services throughout the country. Moreover, there has been a major decline in the quality of the little infrastructure that does exist: some of the facilities that were put in place several decades ago were damaged by the civil war and there have been negligible amounts of routine maintenance. As a result, most existing infrastructure is in need of rehabilitation. Moreover, relative to the population of the country and its GDP, there is not sufficient infrastructure to meet the needs of an economy that has the prospect of sustained strong economic growth in the decade ahead.
Only 2% of the existing road network in South Sudan is paved, and most roads are impassable during the wet season making it difficult if not impossible for rural people, which raises the transportation costs and also hinders the movement of goods from rural areas to urban centers and markets in the country.
There is no national rail network in South Sudan. The branch line from Babanusa in the North to Wau in South Sudan (446 km) is the only line in the country. It was heavily damaged during the conflict with the North and ceased commercial operations in 1991. It is currently being rehabilitated.
A range of constraints limits the pace of recovery in the Nile river transport system. For example, Juba Port has suffered from siltation at its entrance. Navigational aids on the river require rehabilitation or re-installation, and in many locations, dredging is required to open up the waterways after more than two decades of neglect. There is also a general shortage of equipment for operating river transport services, including a lack of handling equipment for containers, and vessels that are not in operating condition.
Only one percent of the population has access to electricity. As a result, per capita consumption of electricity is estimated at about 80 kWh for 2010. Data are not available for the comparator countries, but for the low-income countries of the world, the average consumption of power was 375 kWh in 2004. Inadequate electric power supply and its high cost is a major constraint on the economy.
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
From Cia Factbook (Page last updated on October 09, 2020)
Economy – overview:
Industry and infrastructure in landlocked South Sudan are severely underdeveloped and poverty is widespread, following several decades of civil war with Sudan. Continued fighting within the new nation is disrupting what remains of the economy. The vast majority of the population is dependent on subsistence agriculture and humanitarian assistance. Property rights are insecure and price signals are weak, because markets are not well-organized.
South Sudan has little infrastructure – about 10,000 kilometers of roads, but just 2% of them paved. Electricity is produced mostly by costly diesel generators, and indoor plumbing and potable water are scarce, so less than 2% of the population has access to electricity. About 90% of consumed goods, capital, and services are imported from neighboring countries – mainly Uganda, Kenya and Sudan. Chinese investment plays a growing role in the infrastructure and energy sectors.
Nevertheless, South Sudan does have abundant natural resources. South Sudan holds one of the richest agricultural areas in Africa, with fertile soils and abundant water supplies. Currently the region supports 10-20 million head of cattle. At independence in 2011, South Sudan produced nearly three-fourths of former Sudan’s total oil output of nearly a half million barrels per day. The Government of South Sudan relies on oil for the vast majority of its budget revenues, although oil production has fallen sharply since independence. South Sudan is one of the most oil-dependent countries in the world, with 98% of the government’s annual operating budget and 80% of its gross domestic product (GDP) derived from oil. Oil is exported through a pipeline that runs to refineries and shipping facilities at Port Sudan on the Red Sea. The economy of South Sudan will remain linked to Sudan for some time, given the existing oil infrastructure. The outbreak of conflict in December 2013, combined with falling crude oil production and prices, meant that GDP fell significantly between 2014 and 2017. Since the second half of 2017 oil production has risen, and is currently about 130,000 barrels per day.
Poverty and food insecurity has risen due to displacement of people caused by the conflict. With famine spreading, 66% of the population in South Sudan is living on less than about $2 a day, up from 50.6% in 2009, according to the World Bank. About 80% of the population lives in rural areas, with agriculture, forestry and fishing providing the livelihood for a majority of the households. Much of rural sector activity is focused on low-input, low-output subsistence agriculture.
South Sudan is burdened by considerable debt because of increased military spending and high levels of government corruption. Economic mismanagement is prevalent. Civil servants, including police and the military, are not paid on time, creating incentives to engage in looting and banditry. South Sudan has received more than $11 billion in foreign aid since 2005, largely from the US, the UK, and the EU. Inflation peaked at over 800% per year in October 2016 but dropped to 118% in 2017. The government has funded its expenditures by borrowing from the central bank and foreign sources, using forward sales of oil as collateral. The central bank’s decision to adopt a managed floating exchange rate regime in December 2015 triggered a 97% depreciation of the currency and spawned a growing black market.
Long-term challenges include rooting out public sector corruption, improving agricultural productivity, alleviating poverty and unemployment, improving fiscal transparency – particularly in regard to oil revenues, taming inflation, improving government revenues, and creating a rules-based business environment.
GDP (official exchange rate): $3.06 billion (2017 est.)
General Overview. South Sudan is one of the most oil-dependent countries in the world, with oil accounting for almost the totality of exports, and more than 40% of its gross domestic product (GDP). The country’s GDP per capita in 2014 was $1,111 dropping to less than $200 in 2017. Outside the oil sector, livelihoods are concentrated in low productive, unpaid agriculture and pastoralists work. Coupled with economic mismanagement, many years of conflict have eroded the productive capacity of the country.
With consumption, non-oil exports, and investment declining, oil production provides the immediate sources of growth in South Sudan. While the rehabilitation of oil fields and resumption of oil production are underway, oil production is not expected to reach pre-crisis levels in the short term. The economy is estimated to have recovered with a growth rate of 3.2% in FY2018/19, from a contraction of 3.5% during FY2017/18. Inflation averaged 60.8% during FY2018/19 from 121.4% during FY 2017/18. The gap between the official exchange rate and the parallel market rate remains high and increased from 65% in December 2018 to 85% in June 2019. The external sector current account deficit, excluding grants, rose to 6.5% of GDP during FY2018/19 from 4.5% in FY 2017/18.
South Sudan continues to under-invest in sectors that would have the largest knock-on effect on poverty reduction and building resilience, with expenditures skewed toward defense and security. Consequently, poverty levels are expected to remain extremely high on the back of severe food insecurity and limited access to basic services across the country. About 82% of the population in South Sudan is poor according to the most recent estimates, based on the $1.90 2011 purchasing power parity (PPP) poverty line.
The main challenge going forward is to ensure the sustainability of peace and security in the country. Whereas parties to the September 2018 peace deal agreed to extend the timeline for the formation of a transitional power-sharing government from May to November 2019, little progress has been achieved on key milestones such as the unification of the army and on the number and boundaries of states the country should be divided into. A recent high-level meeting between the two main parties to the conflict and public commitments to continue the dialogue to find solutions on outstanding issues is a positive step towards the implementation of the peace deal.
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
March 2020 Monthly Forecast, posted 28 February 2020.
On 22 February, the Transitional Government of National Unity was established in South Sudan, marking the start of a 36-month transitional period ahead of the holding of elections, in accordance with the terms of the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS) signed on 12 September 2018. Riek Machar was sworn in as First Vice President, followed by four other four vice-presidents. Machar pledged to work with Kiir during the upcoming 36-month transitional period to implement the R-ARCSS. “For the people of South Sudan, I want to assure you that we will work together to end your long-suffering,” he said.
According to the terms of the R-ARCSS, 12 May 2019 was to mark the end of the eight-month pre-transitional period and the start of the 36-month transitional period, with elections to be held 60 days before the end of the transitional period. The deadline for the end of the pre-transitional period was extended for a second time until 22 February so that critical outstanding pre-transitional tasks specified under the R-ARCSS could be completed. These include the cantonment and training of a unified army and agreement on the number and boundaries of states. To date, many pre-transitional tasks remain outstanding, although on 15 February the parties were able to reach a compromise on reducing the number of states from 32 to 10.
The overall level of political violence remains lower than prior to the signing of the R-ARCSS, and the ceasefire continues to hold across most of the country. However, ethnic and intercommunal violence has continued, along with sporadic clashes between government and opposition forces in some parts of the country. The human rights, humanitarian, food security, and economic conditions in the country remain dire, with an enormous impact on civilians.
On March 12, 2020, the Security Council adopted the UNSCR 2514, renewing the UNMISS mandate for one year acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations. The mandate maintains a troop ceiling of 17,000 military personnel, which includes a Regional Protection Force (RPF), and an additional 2,101 police personnel, including 88 corrections officers. The renewed mandate will run until 15 March 2021.
By terms of the resolution, the 15 member Council demanded that all parties to the conflict immediately cease fighting throughout South Sudan and engage in political dialogue. It also demanded that the country’s leaders implement the permanent ceasefire declared in the 2018 Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan.
By further terms, the Council encouraged the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), the African Union Peace and Security Council and countries in the region to continue their firm engagement with South Sudan’s leaders, and to meet, without delay, their commitments under the Revitalized Agreement and other cessation-of-hostilities accords.
The Council requested that the Secretary-General provide, no later than 15 December, an independent strategic review of UNMISS, assessing the challenges to peace and security in South Sudan, with detailed recommendations for a possible reconfiguration of the Mission’s mandate, as well as its civilian, military and police components to account for developments in the peace process.
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
Languages: English (official), Arabic (includes Juba and Sudanese variants), regional languages include Dinka, Nuer, Bari, Zande, Shilluk
Religions: animist, Christian, Muslim
Demographic profile:
South Sudan, independent from Sudan since July 2011 after decades of civil war, is one of the world’s poorest countries and ranks among the lowest in many socioeconomic categories. Problems are exacerbated by ongoing tensions with Sudan over oil revenues and land borders, fighting between government forces and rebel groups, and inter-communal violence. Most of the population lives off of farming, while smaller numbers rely on animal husbandry; more than 80% of the populace lives in rural areas. The maternal mortality rate is among the world’s highest for a variety of reasons, including a shortage of health care workers, facilities, and supplies; poor roads and a lack of transport; and cultural beliefs that prevent women from seeking obstetric care. Most women marry and start having children early, giving birth at home with the assistance of traditional birth attendants, who are unable to handle complications.
Educational attainment is extremely poor due to the lack of schools, qualified teachers, and materials. Less than a third of the population is literate (the rate is even lower among women), and half live below the poverty line. Teachers and students are also struggling with the switch from Arabic to English as the language of instruction. Many adults missed out on schooling because of warfare and displacement.
Almost 2 million South Sudanese have sought refuge in neighboring countries since the current conflict began in December 2013. Another 1.96 million South Sudanese are internally displaced as of August 2017. Despite South Sudan’s instability and lack of infrastructure and social services, more than 240,000 people have fled to South Sudan to escape fighting in Sudan.
Major religions. According to the WPR, South Sudan is a fairly religiously divided nation. The top two faiths are traditional African religions and Christianity, and the percentages of each vary depending on who you ask. A study, “Religion in South Sudan,” by the Pew Research on Religion, stated that South Sudan’s population is 60.5% Christian, 32.9% follow traditional African religion, 6.2% are Muslim, and 0.4% are considered “other.” Due to the ruling of Islamic Sudan over Southern Sudan between 1956 and 2005, the South Sudanese culture was also influenced by Islam, especially in the western and northern parts of Greater Bahr el Ghazal, where nomadic Arabs continue to migrate into South Sudan and traders used to come from the north.
Life expectancy. 56 years (men), 58 years (women).
South Sudan – Population Density (Copyright Geo-Ref.Net)
Population. The Dinka (a Nilotic people) are the biggest ethnic group in South Sudan, forming approximately 35.8% of the population. The Nuer (also Nilotic) is the second biggest ethnic group (15.6%). Other ethnicities or tribes include the Shilluk (Chollo), Luo, Bari, Azande, Anuak, Murle, Kuku, Kakwa, Mandari, Murle, Ndogom Lndi, Lango, Didinga, Dungatona, Acholi, Baka, Fertit, Bviri, Kreish, Bongo, Jiek and Nuba.
Dinka. The Dinka tribe constitutes the biggest ethnic group of South Sudan and probably counts for almost 40% of the population. They are pastoralists and let their cattle graze on the Greater Bahr el Ghazal, in the Pariang County in Unity, in and North of Bor as well as along the Eastern shore of the Nile in Upper Nile State. These geographical divisions reflect themselves into political rivalries among the different Dinka subgroups. While the historical leader of the SPLM, John GARANG, as well as the core leadership of the uprising, came from the Bor area the current President Salva KIIR comes from Greater Bahr el Ghazal (Gogrial in Warrap), which might at times lead to political disagreement. Several other ethnic groups have repeatedly accused the Dinkas of using the South Sudanese institutions to advance a tribal agenda.
Nuer. The Nuers are pastoralists and count for about 30% of the South Sudanese population. While the Unity State, with the exception of the Pariang County, is inhabited by the Nuer people, most of them live on the Eastern side of the Nile, in Southern Upper Nile, Northern Jonglei, and Western Ethiopia around Gambella. The former vice president and current SPLM in opposition, Riek Machar, is a Nuer from Leer in Unity, while the military commander of the SPLA in opposition, Peter Gadet, originates from Mayom, the hometown of the Bull Nuers. The Nuer culture is very similar to the Dinka customs but distinguished itself by a very particular set of traditional believes and superstition as well as by a very efficient mobilization process of the youth in order to fight. Since the end of the 19th century, several Nuer prophets, following Ngundeng Bong, appeared among the Nuer people and spread well-remembered prophecies. As of June 2014, Dak Kueth, a native of the Yuai area in Jonglei, continues to be recognized as an active prophet and exercises considerable influence over the cattle camp youth. Riek Machar reportedly possesses the “magical” stick of the original Ngundeng Bong prophet. While they seem to show greater solidarity than the Dinkas, the Nuer are also divided into subgroups. Most of the Bul Nuer from Mayom, for instance, openly supported the Juba government in the crisis in June 2014.
Murle. The Murle Tribe constitutes a relatively small (about 160 000 persons) ethnic group of pastoralists living in the Greater Pibor Administrative Area (formerly Pibor County). Depending on the season, besides the cattle, they will get their food from the river (fishing), the forests (wild honey and herbs), agriculture (sorghum) of the game (the Kob migration). While the Dinkas and the Nuers share many linguistic and cultural similarities, the Murle speak a totally different language and have developed a unique culture due to their geographical isolation in the swamps of the eastern
Jonglei. They don’t respect an established permanent political structure among the tribe, but the men’s loyalty goes to the age set (or generation) they belong to. The “dominant” generation gathers the men from about 20 to 30 years old and forms the warrior age set defending the tribe (and raiding the cattle of their neighbors at times). As of June 2014, the Botonya generation is being contested by the younger Lango age set. Due to their marginalization and fierce and independent culture, the Murles participated in several uprisings in the past. David Yau Yau, from the Botonya generation, led the last armed rebellion against the Juba government until his group was finally integrated into the government forces in early 2014.
Other relevant ethnic groups. The Fertits are farmers living west and south of Wau and have an old as well as the recent history of violent clashes with the Dinka administration of Western Bahr el Ghazal. The Shilluks live on the Eastern side of the Nile in Upper Nile State and respect the authority of a customary king. Due to the marginalization by the Juba authorities, some Shilluk leaders such as Olony and Ogat led an armed rebellion against the government of South Sudan until agreements were reached in 2013. The exact status of the different Shilluk armed groups, however, remains largely unclear and the Shiluks declared in February 2014 the creation of a new Shilluk self-defense group. The amount of Dinkas living in Juba is misleading, as the original people living in the area of the capital and further North towards Bor are the Bari and the Mundari. Although they possess cattle, they are mainly farmers and complain about the frequent incursions from the Bor Dinka cattle keepers into their territory. This is a general concern for most of the farmers of the three Equatoria States: the Zande in Western Equatoria complain about the Dinka incursions into their farmlands while the Topposa in eastern Equatoria has a border dispute with the Jonglei State. The Topposas constitute an exception in the Equatorias because of their pastoralist culture and their historical involvement in wars.
The people of South Sudan tend to feel a stronger sense of belonging to their tribe or ethnic group before identifying as citizens of the sovereign state. During the years of civil war with North Sudan, many ethnicities and tribes were able to set aside their differences in order to unite to fight for independence. There was a lot of hope and excitement among the broader South Sudanese community when the country gained independence in 2011. However, when conflict erupted in 2013 over competition for political power over the newly formed country, community opinion became divided again.
It is important to understand that although the current civil war has an ethnic undertone, this does not reflect the attitudes of all South Sudanese. People generally treat each other equally, unless they are politically involved individuals (i.e. members of the army) or live in the specific regions affected by violence. For South Sudanese living in host countries, some people may boycott the community events of another ethnicity; however, this kind of behavior remains on a political level. Day-to-day ethnic relations are usually diplomatic and harmonious as most South Sudanese seek peace. Indeed, South Sudanese people living in other countries are commonly open and united across ethnic backgrounds. People may share their tribe’s songs and dances with other South Sudanese ethnicities to build broader community spirit and solidarity. It is also worth noting that the younger generation is usually detached from the conflict and has become instrumental in developing a united image of the South Sudanese community.
Human security, migrants, immigration/emigration, medical and hygiene, human rights, crime, food/water security. According to the UNHCR about 2.236.176 is the number of refugees and asylum-seekers from South Sudan updated until January 31, 2020, in neighboring countries since the current conflict began in December 2013. According to the CIA, another 1.96 million South Sudanese are internally displaced as of August 2017. Despite South Sudan’s instability and lack of infrastructure and social services, more than 240,000 people have fled to South Sudan to escape fighting in Sudan.
In parallel, according to the USAID an estimated 7.2 million people (more than 60 percent of the population) need humanitarian assistance, 4.5 million urgently need food assistance, and 1.3 million children are acutely malnourished, the highest number recorded since independence. Atrocities and widespread attacks on civilians, including rampant sexual violence, have defined the conflict. South Sudanese have been deeply affected by exposure to traumatic events and economic devastation.
The Government of South Sudan signed agreements in March 2012 and August 2015 that included the demobilization of all child soldiers within the armed forces and opposition, but the recruitment of child soldiers by the warring parties continues; as of the end of 2018, UNICEF estimated that more than 19,000 child soldiers had been used in the country’s civil war since it began in December 2013 (2018).
Refugees from South Sudan – Total (Copyright – UNHCR)(Copyright – UNCHR)
Human Rights. According to the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, Human rights abuses during the civil war demonstrated that the parties on all sides of the conflict chose to inflict horrific harm on hundreds of thousands of innocent people who they associated with their enemies. One recent study estimated that 382,000 people died as a direct and indirect result of the conflict, while tens of thousands of people have been subjected to sexual violence, including brutal cases of rape, sexual mutilation, and torture. The sheer scale of the violence – half of the 382,000 people died directly from acts of violence – puts into perspective any claims about protection in this study. Many South Sudanese see the lack of accountability for these serious crimes as a major impediment to long-term stability in the country and a potential trigger for future violence.
In this context, the human rights monitoring and reporting work of UNMISS has publicly documented some of the more egregious patterns of abusive behavior by the parties to the conflict, reports which have been used by UN leadership to advocate for greater restraint by the parties. High visibility reports that identify the groups responsible for systematic or widespread abuses become part of the public discourse in South Sudan, and are certainly used as political tools to demand restraint by the parties to the conflict. The direct impact of the human rights work of the Mission on rates of human rights violations is extremely difficult to assess, though it is worth noting the perception within and outside the Mission that the reports over the past two years have been more direct in their assessments of abuses than in previous years.
Famine Conditions. Food security is a major concern in South Sudan, with an estimated 7 million people being food insecure, 2 million people in need of emergency food aid, nearly a million children under 5 being malnourished, and over 20,000 children in acute famine condition according to the Secretary General report on conditions as of September 2019. Flooding and poor road conditions have also made it difficult for farmers to produce food and distribute it to markets throughout the country.
Protection of Civilians. The September 2019 report of the Secretary General outlines numerous PoC challenges by region. Despite the challenges below, the report states that violence is contained within certain localities.[i]
Greater Upper Nile – Road attacks in Unity remain a threat, and armed men and young people who are engaging in such attacks.
Greater Equatoria – Insecurity due to conflict with the National Salvation Front (NSF), including fighting in Payai and outside Lobonok, as well as cross border recruitment from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Uganda. Further incidents have occurred due to SPLA and SPLA-IO clashes.
Greater Bahr el-Ghazal – Cattle raiding and inter-communal conflict continue to pose a threat, and clashes between the South Sudan United Front and the South Sudan People’s Defense Forces (SPDF). Resistance to disarmament is also causing clashes between civilians and the government.
In response to these threats, the Secretary General’s report stated that UNMISS deployed pre-emptive patrols to project presence and deter violence, increased patrols in hotspots and established a semi-permanent presence where conflict is ongoing. These actions were taken in conjunction with efforts to improve situational awareness through community engagement and human rights monitoring.
Like other peacekeeping contexts where maintaining security at the national level is a challenge, such as the UN Mission in Central African Republic (MINUSCA), facilitating local peace agreements is leading to a de-escalation of violence. The same is occurring in South Sudan. In 2019, UNMISS held a tri-state peace conference between Wau, Tonj, and Gogrial which resulted in local ceasefires that have reduced violence and led to the restoration of property. These promising practices should be encouraged and replicated in other high-risk locations.
PoC Sites. UNMISS provides protection to 180,366 people sheltering in proximity to UN bases. These are known as “PoC sites” which are situated in Juba, Bor, Bentiu, Malakal and Wau. The largest of the sites is Bentiu, where 103,424 people reside.
The mission has had difficulty ensuring the civilian nature of the sites, as weapons are occasionally smuggled within them due to inadequate fencing and perimeter security. However, regular cordon and search operations and meetings with community leaders have led to greater safety within the sites.
While the mission would like to reduce number of people sheltering near UN bases, interviews of IDPs conducted by Refugees International have revealed concerns that their safety would be compromised unless they return to an ethnically homogenous area. This has caused some concern within humanitarian agencies that are prepared to support returns but do not want to further ethnic divisions.
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA). In 2019, the mission reported 9 allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse; 7 of which concerned exploitative relationships by civilian and military personnel, and 2 rape cases that included paternity claims.[ii] The majority of allegations concerned national staff, however two cases involved personnel from Nigeria and Ghana.
Children and Armed Conflict (CAAC). The Government of South Sudan ratified the UN optional Protocol on the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict. However, gaps in implementation remain, as evidenced by the ongoing recruitment of young boys by the National Salvation Front, and in the Greater Equatoria region as well as the number of recruited children who need to be released from detention according to mission reports.
The UN Children’s Agency (UNICEF) is working with the mission and the Sudan People’s Defense Force (SPDF) on the verification of the age of young men recruited into service, to ensure that boys below the age of 18 are not conscripted. The updated UNMISS mandate highlighted that 2.2 million children in South Sudan are out of school, which further contributes to their vulnerability to exploitation, abuse, and forced recruitment.
Women, Peace and Security
Political Participation. The March 2019 renewal of the UNMISS mandate acknowledges impediments to the full implementation of WPS and calls for a renewed commitment to women’s “empowerment, participation, and human rights, concerted leadership, consistent information and action, and support, to build women’s engagement in all levels of decision-making, and through ensuring that the full and meaningful participation and involvement of women in all spheres and levels of political leadership, the peace process, and pre-transitional and transitional government.”[iii] The mandate further welcomes the decision to implement a quota of 35% female participation in the transitional government and encourages officials to realize this goal. UNMISS has a network of gender affairs officers in all field offices that can provide support to women seeking greater participation in the peacebuilding process.
Conflict Related Sexual Violence (CRSV). Sexual and gender based violence (SGBV) remains unusually high in South Sudan and is often associated with the conflict or cattle raids. Some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as CARE are focusing their prevention efforts on engaging local male leaders, particularly clan and religious leaders, to reduce acceptance of SGBV as part of inter-communal violence and reprisals for the confiscation of property, such as cattle raids.
The rape of young girls by SPLA-IO forces has been documented by the mission, and within the South Sudan People’s Defense Force. Individual cases of sexual violence were also perpetrated by other armed actors. In June 2019, Riek Machar endorsed an action plan against CRSV on behalf of the SPLA-IO, which is in addition to a communique he sent to SPLA-IO commanders in 2014. The action plan agrees that opposition forces will be held accountable for their actions by a civilian court. In July 2019, Machar also sent a communique for forces in Western Equatoria to release girls held against their will on opposition bases.
The mission has worked to reduce incidents of sexual violence within the PoC sites by training police on SGBV investigations and informing women of ways to report incidents to the police. UNMISS is also working with the UN Development Program (UNDP) to expand mobile courts in regions with a high backlog of cases for SGBV, including in Rumbeck and Juba. The mission is also working on other legal and judicial reforms to equip the courts and judges to further prosecute crimes of a sexual nature.
[i] United Nations Security Council, Report of the Secretary-General on the Situation in South Sudan, 10 September 2019 (S/2019/722) https://undocs.org/S/2019/722
Water Security. According to the African Development Bank Group, after decades of war, access to water supply and sanitation services is severely constrained. Only 27% of the population has access to improved water supplies, whereas the average for the comparator countries is about 68%. In the case of sanitation services, only 16% of the population has access to improved sanitation. In the case of the comparator countries, access ranges from 6% for Eritrea to 59% for Malawi. Many of the water points recorded in the national database are not operational. One-third of the population still relies on surface water as its main source. Access to piped water is practically non-existent, and more than 60% of the population relies on wells and boreholes for access to water. Three-quarters of the population does not have access to any type of sanitation facility.
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
South Sudan attained independence from Sudan on July 09, 2011, after a referendum, becoming the newest country in the world. The birth of the Republic of South Sudan is the culmination of a six-year peace process, which began with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) on 9 January 2005 between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), which ended more than 20 years of war.
The United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) supported the implementation of the CPA during the interim period set up by the Government of Sudan and SPLM when the CPA was signed. The CPA also called for a referendum to take place to determine the status of Southern Sudan. It was held on schedule in January 2011, with the overwhelming majority, 98.83% of participants, voting for independence. The Secretary-General welcomed the announcement of the final results stating that they were reflective of the will of the people of southern Sudan.
Following the end of this interim period, and the subsequent independence of South Sudan in July 2011, the Security Council established a new mission, the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) with the adoption of http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/1996 on 8 July 2011.
South Sudan is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD). On March 3rd, 2016, the East African Community Secretariat declared South Sudan officially a member of the regional block. The country will remain an observer until the current leadership addresses issues around instability, governance, and human rights record.
History of the conflict
On 15 December 2013, violence broke out in South Sudan’s capital Juba and quickly spread to other locations in the country resulting in a deep nation-wide political and security crisis. Seven out of the country’s ten states were affected by the conflict with Central Equatoria, Jonglei, Lakes, Unity, and Upper Nile states being the hardest hit.
In addition, a few days into the crisis, the relationship between the Government and UNMISS started to grow increasingly tense, amid mounting anti-United Nations sentiment emanating from misperceptions about the Mission’s role during the crisis. There were unfounded allegations that UNMISS was not impartial and that the Mission was aiding and abetting the anti-government forces. Senior officials of the Government made hostile public statements. The ability of UNMISS to move freely was increasingly obstructed. Demonstrations against the United Nations were organized in several state capitals, including Rumbek (Lakes State) and Aweil (Northern Bahr el Ghazal State).
The crisis had widespread negative consequences for the human rights situation in many parts of the country, especially in areas of greatest military confrontation (in the national capital and in Jonglei, Upper Nile, and the Unity States). UNMISS estimated that thousands of people had been killed during the hostilities. Both parties to the conflict were responsible for ethnically targeted attacks on civilians and have failed to comply with international humanitarian and human rights law.
The humanitarian situation also deteriorated sharply. Within the first four weeks of the crisis, almost 500,000 persons were displaced within South Sudan and around 74,300 people had crossed into neighboring countries. These numbers continued to grow, with total displacement by the end of February 2014 reaching 900,000 persons, some 167,000 of whom crossed into neighboring countries. The number of civilians who had tipped into the “acute” or “emergency” categories of food insecurity had increased from 1.1 million to 3.2 million. In addition, some 500,000 displaced persons were in urgent need of food aid, which meant that the survival of 3.7 million South Sudanese was in question.
UNMISS reinforced
When the fighting erupted in Juba and spread throughout the greater Upper Nile region, tens of thousands of civilians fled from areas where large numbers of killings were taking place, including to escape targeted attacks against particular communities, and arrived at UNMISS compounds in Juba, Bor, Akobo, Bentiu, Malakal and Melut to seek refuge. The Mission opened its gates and its military engineers, working with humanitarian partners, quickly prepared sites in the compounds for the protection of civilians, despite having minimum facilities to accommodate them. Since then, as many as 85,000 civilians had sought protection in eight UNMISS compounds across the country.
The influx of so many civilians into United Nations premises and their settlement there was an unprecedented development, one that presented unique challenges and placed a huge strain on Mission resources. UNMISS strived to ensure adequate security for the protection sites in its bases and worked with humanitarian partners to provide sufficient assistance to displaced persons.
In order to give UNMISS adequate capacity to cope with the crisis, the Security Council by its resolution 2132 (2013) of 24 December, approved Secretary-General’s recommendation to temporarily increase the overall troop and police strength of the Mission. The interim troop level of UNMISS was raised to 12,500 personnel and the police component to 1,323 personnel, including appropriate formed police units, through temporary transfers from existing peacekeeping operations through inter-mission cooperation, as well as, if needed and subject to further Council consideration, complementary force, and asset generation.
This timely approval by the Security Council of the surge capacity for UNMISS military and police components under the inter-mission cooperation arrangements played a critical role in enhancing the Mission’s capacity to save lives and protect civilians from further harm.
Reporting to the Security Council on 6 March, the Secretary-General emphasized that it was important to keep this surge capacity deployed for at least 12 months. He argued that this one-year period would fit with the likely timeline of internally displaced persons returning only after a peace process has been agreed upon and leave the dry months in the latter half of 2014 for stabilization in return areas. The troop ceiling could be reviewed at the end of the 12-month period and be closely linked to the outcome of the political negotiations between the parties.
The Secretary-General believed that in light of the recent developments, UNMISS must temporarily reprioritize its activities and shift from a stand dedicated to peacebuilding, State-building and the extension of State authority, to one of strict impartiality in its relations with both parties. This shift was necessary to enable liaison and coordination activities with both parties for the effective implementation of the Mission’s redefined priority tasks in conflict-affected areas.
The main focus of the Mission, the Secretary-General suggested, should be on the protection of civilians, human rights, and contributing to the creation of security conditions conducive to the delivery of humanitarian assistance, as requested and within the capability, in the areas most affected by the conflict. The Mission will protect those in need, within its means. The Mission’s impartiality going forward would be the sine qua non of all its actions throughout the country as long as the conflict persisted.
On 27 May 2014, the Security Council, by unanimously adopting its resolution 2155 (2014) reprioritized the mandate of UNMISS towards the protection of civilians, human rights monitoring and support for the delivery of humanitarian assistance, and increased the Mission’s troop strength to 12,500 and a police component to up to 1,323 personnel, as requested in the Secretary-General’s 6 March report. It also authorized the deployment within UNMISS of an Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) task force to support the protection of civilians and the Monitoring and Verification Mechanism (MVM) established pursuant to the 23 January 2014 Cessation of Hostilities Agreement.
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
The UNMISS military, as mandated under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, has a role to support and assist in creating a safe and secure environment that will facilitate the implementation of the mission’s mandate and establish conditions necessary for stability in South Sudan.
The military aims to deter potential aggressors from harming the people of South Sudan and to support the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and other security agencies in protecting civilians. As far as possible, within its mandate, UNMISS armed forces assist the SPLA by encouraging, facilitating and demonstrating professionalism in its operations.
The key tasks of the UNMISS military are:
Supporting the South Sudanese government and the SPLA in conflict prevention, mitigation and resolution and in the creation of a stable and secure environment;
Physical protection of civilians under imminent threat of physical violence, particularly when the Government is not providing such security;
Providing support to security sector reform and the Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration process;
Facilitating access and providing protection for civilian humanitarian and development actors;
Assisting in efforts to build the capacity of the SPLA and other security agencies;
Build relations and support South Sudanese communities through civil-military activities in areas such as health, veterinary practice and engineering; and
Protecting of UN personnel, installations, and equipment.
UN Police (UNPOL) is vital in helping to promote peace and security. UN Police works to maintain public safety and security within UNMISS protection of civilians sites in accordance with international human rights standards, assisting with a wide range of activities.
UNPOL aims are to:
Protection of civilians;
Monitoring, and investigating human rights;
Creating the conditions conducive to the delivery of humanitarian assistance; and
Supporting the Implementation of the Agreement (To carry out, within its capabilities).
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
The Mission protects, monitors, investigates, and reports on human rights violations and abuses with a strong focus on the most vulnerable, such as women and children, and those who are subjected to sexual and gender-based violence.
The Mission is committed to helping build durable peace in South Sudan. It does this by working as an impartial partner at a national and sub-national level with political, religious, traditional and community leaders as well as at grassroots with communities and individuals across the country. The priorities are to advance reconciliation efforts, to strengthen conflict resolution mechanisms, and build national cohesion as well as to engage in regional and international peace initiatives.
UNMISS believes that the path to peace for South Sudan is political rather than through violence. The guns must be silenced so that genuine dialogue and reconciliation can take place and enduring peace be achieved for the people of this country.
Assessing the Effectiveness of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) — EPON effectivepeaceops.net “The report focuses on the most recent period of UNMISS’ mandate (2014-18), aiming to provide a “snapshot” of the mission’s work across its four main mandate areas: the protection of civilians (PoC), facilitation of humanitarian delivery, promotion of…”
These products are the results of academic research and intended for general information and awareness only. They include the best information publicly available at the time of publication. Routine efforts are made to update the materials; however, readers are encouraged to check the specific mission sites at https://unmiss.unmissions.org or https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmiss.
